Socotra

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Author:Laxman Burdak, IFS (R)
Location of Socotra is 340 km south-east of Yemen and east of the Horn of Africa
Yeman in Middle East Countries

Socotra (सोकोट्रा) is an island of the Republic of Yemen in the Indian Ocean.[1] Socotra is 340 km south-east of Yemen and east of the Horn of Africa. It is situated close to the mouth of Red Sea and Governed by Yemen today.[2] In 2008 Socotra was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[3] It has been described as "the most alien-looking place on Earth."[4]

Variants

Jat Gotras Namesake

Location

Socotra is 340 km south-east of Yemen and east of the Horn of Africa. It is situated close to the mouth of Red Sea and Governed by Yemen today.[8]

Lying between the Guardafui Channel and the Arabian Sea and near major shipping routes, Socotra is the largest of the four islands in the Socotra archipelago.

The island of Socotra represents around 95% of the landmass of the Socotra archipelago. It lies 380 kilometres south of the Arabian Peninsula,[9] but is considered to be part of Africa.[10] The island measures 132 kilometres in length and 49.7 kilometres in width.[11]

Etymology

  • The Greek name Dioskouridon nēsos (Διοσκουρίδων νῆσος) meaning "the island of the Dioscuri".[15]
  • The Arabic term Suqutra broken down as follows: Suq, means market, and qutra is a vulgar form of qatir, which refers to dragon's blood. Indeed, the capital city of Socotra was Suq as reported by the Portuguese in the 16th century, which they referred to as market place.[16]

Ecology

Dracaena cinnabari (Dragon's Blood Tree) — endemic to Socotra island, Yemen.
Socotra dragon blood tree

The island is isolated and home to a high number of endemic species. Up to a third of its plant life is endemic. It has been described as "the most alien-looking place on Earth."[17]

Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of continental origin (i.e. not of volcanic origin). The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana and detached during the Miocene epoch, in the same set of rifting events that opened the Gulf of Aden to its northwest.[18]

Socotra is considered the jewel of biodiversity in the Arabian Sea.[19] In the 1990s, a team of United Nations biologists conducted a survey of the archipelago's flora and fauna. They counted nearly 700 endemic species, found nowhere else on earth; only New Zealand,[20] Hawaii, New Caledonia, and the Galápagos Islands have more impressive numbers.[21]

The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora.

One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the dragon's blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a dye, and today used as paint and varnish.[22]

Genetics

The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup J. Several of the female lineages, notably those in mtDNA haplogroup N, are unique to the island[23]

What is common with Jats and residents on Socotra ? The J* subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup J. For details see below:

DNA study on Y-STR Haplogroup Diversity in the Jat Population

David G. Mahal and Ianis G. Matsoukas[24] conducted a scientific study on Y-STR Haplogroup Diversity in the Jat Population of which brief Conclusion is as under:

The Jats represent a large ethnic community that has inhabited the northwest region of India and Pakistan for several thousand years. It is estimated the community has a population of over 123 million people. Many historians and academics have asserted that the Jats are descendants of Aryans, Scythians, or other ancient people that arrived and lived in northern India at one time. Essentially, the specific origin of these people has remained a matter of contention for a long time. This study demonstrated that the origins of Jats can be clarified by identifying their Y-chromosome haplogroups and tracing their genetic markers on the Y-DNA haplogroup tree. A sample of 302 Y-chromosome haplotypes of Jats in India and Pakistan was analyzed. The results showed that the sample population had several different lines of ancestry and emerged from at least nine different geographical regions of the world. It also became evident that the Jats did not have a unique set of genes, but shared an underlying genetic unity with several other ethnic communities in the Indian subcontinent. A startling new assessment of the genetic ancient origins of these people was revealed with DNA science.

The human Y-chromosome provides a powerful molecular tool for analyzing Y-STR haplotypes and determining their haplogroups which lead to the ancient geographic origins of individuals. For this study, the Jats and 38 other ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent were analyzed, and their haplogroups were compared. Using genetic markers and available descriptions of haplogroups from the Y-DNA phylogenetic tree, the geographic origins and migratory paths of their ancestors were traced.

The study demonstrated that based on their genetic makeup, the Jats belonged to at least nine specific haplogroups, with nine different lines of ancestry and geographic origins. About 90% of the Jats in our sample belonged to only four different lines of ancestry and geographic origins:

1. Haplogroup L (36.8%)- The origins of this haplogroup can be traced to the rugged and mountainous Pamir Knot region in Tajikistan.

2. Haplogroup R (28.5%): From somewhere in Central Asia, some descendants of the man carrying the M207 mutation on the Y chromosome headed south to arrive in India about 10,000 years ago (Wells, 2007). This is one of the largest haplogroups in India and Pakistan. Of its key subclades, R2 is observed especially in India and central Asia.

3. Haplogroup Q (15.6%): With its origins in central Asia, descendants of this group are linked to the Huns, Mongols, and Turkic people. In Europe it is found in southern Sweden, among Ashkenazi Jews, and in central and Eastern Europe such as, the Rhône-Alpes region of France, southern Sicily, southern Croatia, northern Serbia, parts of Poland and Ukraine.

4. Haplogroup J (9.6%): The ancestor of this haplogroup was born in the Middle East area known as the Fertile Crescent, comprising Israel, the West Bank, Jordon, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq. Middle Eastern traders brought this genetic marker to the Indian subcontinent (Kerchner, 2013).

5.-9. Haplogroups E, G, H, I, T (9.5%): The ancestors of the remaining five haplogroups E, G, H, I, and T can be traced to different parts of Africa, Middle East, South Central Asia, and Europe (ISOGG, 2016).

Therefore, attributing the origins of this entire ethnic group to loosely defined ancient populations such as, Indo-Aryans or Indo-Scythians represents very broad generalities and cannot be supported. The study also revealed that even with their different languages, religions, nationalities, customs, cuisines, and physical differences, the Jats shared their haplogroups with several other ethnic groups of the Indian subcontinent, and had the same common ancestors and geographic origins in the distant past. Based on recent developments in DNA science, this study provided new insights into the ancient geographic origins of this major ethnic group in the Indian subcontinent. A larger dataset, particularly with more representation of Muslim Jats, is likely to reveal some additional haplogroups and geographical origins for this ethnic group.

History

The history of Socotra describes the cultures, events, peoples and strategic relevance for sea trade of what is Socotra, an island of the Republic of Yemen, currently under control of the United Arab Emirates (UAE)-backed Southern Transitional Council, a secessionist participant in Yemen's ongoing civil war.[25] Lying between the Guardafui Channel and the Arabian Sea and near major shipping routes, Socotra is the largest of the four islands in the Socotra archipelago.

Prehistory: It is unclear when and by whom Socotra was first settled.: There was initially an Oldowan lithic culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V.A. Zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008.[26][27]

Ancient history: By the turn of the Common Era, Socotra was a crossroad of commerce based on the monsoon winds. This sea trade brought together people from the coasts of western Indian Ocean, Red Sea and East-Africa.[28] Socotra contributed to this sea trade with tortoise shells and resins of Myrrh, Frankincense and dragon tree, highly prized as fragrant incense and widely used in medicine and cosmetics.[29]

But as per the fourth century, demand for the resins declined giving way to a cattle-breeding economy organized in pastoral tribes.[30]

Written sources: In the late 2nd century BCE, Agatharchides recorded merchants from Potana, coming to the "Blessed Islands" (Socotra) to trade with Alexandrian merchants.[31]

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a first-century CE Greek navigation aid describes Socotra as follows:

The inhabitants, few in number, live on one side of the island, that to the north, the part facing the mainland; they are settlers, a mixture of Arabs and Indians and even some Greeks, who sail out of there to trade. .....— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §30[32]
[The island was] subject to the King of the frankincense-bearing land [i.e. the Kingdom of Hadhramaut]......— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §31[33]

The Weilüe, a Chinese historical text written in the third century CE states:

The king of Zesan (Socotra) is subject to Da Qin (Rome). His seat of government is in the middle of the sea… [Zesan] is in close communication with Angu city (Gerrha) in Anxi (Parthia).[34]

Medieval History: The earliest account concerning the presence of Christians in Socotra stems from the 6th century CE Greek merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes,[35] who holds that there were - still Greek speaking - colonists on the island once settled by the Ptolemies.[36]

In 880, an Ethiopian expeditionary force conquered the island and an Oriental Orthodox bishop was consecrated. The Ethiopians were later dislodged by an armada sent by Imam Al-Salt bin Malik of Oman.[37][38]

In his Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab), Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani (893 – 945) describes the geography and the linguistic situation of the Arabian peninsula and Socotra stating, that Alexander the Great sent Greeks to Socotra to cultivate the endemic aloe.[39]

The geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229) writes: "Whoever is bound for the Land of the Zanj sails past Socotra. The majority of its population are Christian Arabs. Thence are delivered aloe and the resin of a tree which grows only on this island."[[40]

The Persian geographer Ibn al-Mujawir (1204-1291) shed much light on the culture and everyday life of the Socotrans giving clues to their ancient religious beliefs, particularly in the references to good and evil jinns. He reports, that there were two groups of people on the island, the indigenous mountain dwellers and the foreign coastal dwellers.[41]

Socotra is also mentioned in the Travels of Marco Polo. Although Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island, he reports that "the inhabitants are baptized Christians and have an archbishop",who "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad”.[42] As well as Marco Polo, already before, in the 10th century, the Arabic geographer Al-Masudi notes, that Socotra was at that time a pirate base: “Let me tell you further that many corsairs put in at this island at the end of a cruise and pitch camp here and sell their booty".[43]

In 1507, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed at the then capital of Suq and captured its port after a stiff battle against the Mahra Sultanate. Their objective was to set a base in a strategic place on the route to India. The infertility of the land led the Portuguese abandon the island in 1511.[44] The island reverted to the control of the Mahra Sultanate, and the inhabitants converted to Islam.[45]


The Island was an important halt on the maritime trading route between India to East Africa and Middle East. Evidence of the Indian seafarers is available in abundance in cave inscriptions on the cliffs that overlook the pristine shoreline. The majority of these inscriptions are in Brahmi and others in Aksumite, Nobatean, Early Arabic, Palmyrean and Bactrian. [46]

Socotra appears as Dioskouridou (Διοσκουρίδου νῆσος), meaning "the island of the Dioscuri",[47] in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a first-century AD Greek navigation aid. A recent discovery of texts in several languages, including a wooden tablet in Palmyrene dated to the third century AD, indicate the diverse origins of those who used Socotra as a trading base in antiquity.[48]

In 2001, a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project investigated a cave on the island of Socotra. There, they came across a large number of inscriptions, drawings and archaeological objects.[49] Further investigation showed that these had been left by sailors who visited the island between the first century BC and the sixth century AD. Most of the texts are written in the Indian Brāhmī script; there are also inscriptions in South Arabian, Ethiopic, Greek, Palmyrene and Bactrian scripts and languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in that time period.[50]

A local tradition, based on the third-century apocryphal Acts of Thomas, holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD 52. In 880, an Ethiopian expeditionary force conquered the island and an Oriental Orthodox bishop was consecrated. The Ethiopians were later dislodged by a large armada sent by Imam Al-Salt bin Malik of Oman.[51]

In the tenth century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that, in his time, most of the inhabitants were Christian. Socotra is also mentioned in The Travels of Marco Polo; Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island, but recorded a report that "the inhabitants are baptised Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad." They were Eastern Christians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.[52]

History of Socotra - 20th century and beyond

In October 1967, in the wake of the departure of the British from Aden and southern Arabia, the Mahra Sultanate was abolished. On 30 November of the same year, Socotra became part of South Yemen. Since Yemeni unification in 1990, Socotra has been a part of the Republic of Yemen.

In 2015, the cyclones Chapala and Megh struck the island, causing severe damage to its infrastructure.

From 2016 onwards Socotra came under rule of the UAE.

Mention by Pliny

Pliny[53] mentions Arabia....Opposite to this place, in the main sea, lies the island of Ogyris32, famous for being the burial-place of king Erythras33; it is distant from the mainland one hundred and twenty miles, being one hundred and twelve in circumference. No less famous is another island, called Dioscoridu34, and lying in the Azanian Sea35; it is distant two hundred and eighty miles from the extreme point of the Promontory of Syagrus36.

32 Hardouin and Ansart think that under this name is meant the island called in modern times Mazira or Maceira.

33 There seem to have been three mythical personages of this name; but it appears impossible to distinguish the one from the other.

34 Or "Dioscoridis Insula," an island of the Indian Ocean, of considerable importance as an emporium or mart, in ancient times. It lay between the Syagrus Promontorium, in Arabia, and Aromata Promontorium, now Cape Guardafui, on the opposite coast of Africa, somewhat nearer to the former, according to Arrian, which cannot be the case if it is rightly identified with Socotorra, 200 miles distant from the Arabian coast, and 110 from the north-east promontory of Africa.

35 So called from Azania, or Barbaria, now Ajan, south of Somauli, on the mainland of Africa.

36 Now Cape Fartash, in Arabia.

Mention by Pliny

Pliny[54] mentions .....We learn from Ephorus, as well as Eudoxus and Timosthenes, that there are great numbers of islands scattered all over this sea; Clitarchus says that king Alexander was informed of an island so rich that the inhabitants gave a talent of gold for a horse, and of another1 upon which there was found a sacred mountain, shaded with a grove, the trees of which emitted odours of wondrous sweetness; this last was situate over against the Persian Gulf.

1 Marcus says that these islands are those called the "Two Sisters," situate to the west of the Isle of Socotra, on the coast of Africa. They are called by Ptolemy, Cocionati.

Sikotari Mata tradition

Indians who lived here in caves brought to India the Tradition of Sikotari Mata or Socotri Mata. It was probably the home of one of their most important Goddesses, to home they also built a number of shrines back home in India. They called her the Sikotari Mata or Socotri Mata.[55]

सुक़ुत्रा

सुक़ुत्रा या सोक़ोत्रा एक छोटा सा द्वीपसमूह है, जिसके सबसे बड़े द्वीप सुक़तरा, जिसका भू-क्षेत्र पूरे द्वीपसमूह का लगभग 95% है, के नाम पर इस द्वीपसमूह को भी सुक़ुत्रा कहा जाता है। यह अफ़्रीका के सींग से 240 किमी पूर्व में और अरबी प्रायद्वीप से 380 किमी दक्षिण में स्थित हैं। प्रशासनिक रूप से यह यमन देश के हदरामौत प्रान्त का हिस्सा है, हालांकि 2004 तक यह उसी देश के अदन प्रान्त का भाग हुआ करता था और भौगोलिक दृष्टि से अल-महराह प्रान्त के सबसे पास है। इस द्वीप समूह के सबसे बड़ा द्वीप का नाम भी सुक़ुत्रा है और बाक़ी तीन द्वीप (अब्द अल-कूरी, समहाह, दरसाह) इसके मुक़ाबले में बहुत छोटे हैं।

इस जगह को ‘एलियन आइलैंड’ इसलिए कहा जाता है, क्योंकि यहां मौजूद हर चीज इतनी अनोखी है कि आपको ये दुनिया में कहीं और मिलेगी ही नहीं। यह एक गुमनाम जगह है, ज्यादातर लोग इस जगह के बारे में ज्यादा कुछ नहीं जानते। सोकोट्रा के पेड़-पौधे, जीव-जंतु, मिट्टी व पहाड़ सब कुछ सबसे अलग पाए जाते हैं। बताया जाता है कि यहां 2 करोड़ साल पुराने पेड़ भी देखने को मिलते हैं जोकि दुनिया में किसी और जगह नहीं है।[56]

समुद्र में अन्य स्थानों से अलग-थलग सुक़ुत्रा पर जीव क्रम-विकास (एवोल्यूशन) ने ऐसी जातियाँ बनाई हैं जो विश्व में और कहीं नहीं मिलती। वनस्पति वैज्ञानिकों के अनुसार यहाँ पाए जाने वाले एक-तिहाई वृक्ष-पौधे और कहीं नहीं मिलते। इसे अक्सर पृथ्वी की सबसे ज़्यादा परग्रही दिखने वाली जगह के रूप में वर्णित किया जाता है।

नामोत्पत्ति: कुछ इतिहासकारों का मानना है कि इस द्वीप पर सबसे पहले भारतीय मूल के लोग निवास करते थे और उन्होंने इसका नाम संस्कृत भाषा में सुखधारा द्वीप रखा था। सिकंदर महान के काल में यूनानिओं को इस द्वीप का पता चला तो उन्होंने इस संस्कृत नाम का यूनानिकरण कर के इसे 'दिओसकोर्दिया' (Διοσκουρίδα, Dioscordia) कहना शुरू कर दिया। इन्हीं नामों से आधुनिक 'सुक़ुत्रा' नाम पड़ने की आशंका है।

अन्य स्रोतों के अनुसार यह अरबी भाषा के 'सूक' (यानि बाज़ार) और 'क़तरा' (यानि बूँद) शब्दों से भी आया हो सकता है। इनके अनुसार यहाँ पाए जाने वाले 'अझ़दहा रक्त वृक्ष' से निकलने वाला रस (जो ख़ून जैसे लाल रंग का होता है) को जमाकर बनाने वाला 'लोबान' (फ़्रैंकिनसेन्स​) नामक सुगन्धित पदार्थ यहाँ से बहुत निर्यात होता था इसलिए इसे 'सूक अल-क़तरा' (अझ़दहा रक्त की बूंदों का बाज़ार) कहा जाने लगा।

सिकोतर माता

सिकोतर नाम यमनी द्वीप सोकोत्रा की ओर हमारा ध्यान आकर्षित करता है। फिलहाल संयुक्त अरब अमीरात ने सोकोत्रा पर कब्ज़ा कर रखा है। इस द्वीप का उल्लेख 'पेरिप्लस ऑफ़ द एरिथ्रियन सी' में किया गया है, जो नौपरिवहन की एक प्राचीन यूनानी पुस्तक है। इस पुस्तक में अफ़्रीका, अरब और भारत के बीच मानसूनी हवाओं की मदद से किए गए समुद्री व्यापार का वर्णन किया गया है।[57]

सोकोत्रा द्वीप का नाम संभवतः संस्कृत के 'सुखधरा' शब्द से आया है जिसका अर्थ है - 'वह जो आनंद प्रदान करता है'। सोकोत्रा द्वीप का समुद्र तट जोखिम भरा है और शायद इसलिए नाविक उसके पास जाने से डरे होंगे। संभवतः इसी कारण द्वीप को गुजरात में सिकोतर माता का रूप दिया गया, जिन्हें आज भी समुद्री व्यापार करने वाले और न करने वाले भक्त भी नौकाएं अर्पित कर पूजते हैं। [58]

सिकोतरी को राजस्थान में सिकोतर माता, पिशाचनी, चुड़ैल, दूती, दुर्गा का एक नामान्तर आदि नामों से भी जाना जाता है. [59] डरावनी आँख वाले को व्यंग में कहा जाता है कि सिकोतरी की सी आँख क्यों दिखा रहे हो। इससे यह प्रमाणित होता है कि प्राचीन काल में राजस्थान के लोग सोकोत्रा द्वीप से परिचित रहे हैं.

सिंध प्रदेश की देवी माँ को सधी सिकोतर नाम से जाना जाता है.

External links

References

  1. ↑ Burrowes, Robert D. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Scarecrow Press. pp. 361–362. ISBN 978-0-8108-5528-1; Robinson, Peg; Hestler, Anna; Spilling, Jo-Ann (2019). Yemen. Cavendish Square. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-50264-162-5.
  2. ↑ Kurush Dalal-Socotra Island:A Heaven for Ancient Indian Seafarers
  3. ↑ https://www.sabanews.net/en/news151852.htm "EU to protect Socotra archipelago environment". Saba Net. Yemen News Agency (SABA). 15 April 2008.
  4. ↑ Huntingford, George Wynn Brereton (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Hakluyt Society. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-904180-05-3.
  5. ↑ "Socotra Definition & Meaning". dictionary.com. Dictionary.com.
  6. ↑ Sanjeev Sanyal Land of the Seven Rivers: A Brief History of India’s Geography. Penguin Books (2013), p. 112
  7. ↑ "Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Ancient South Arabia through History". www.cambridgescholars.com. pp. 5–6.
  8. ↑ Kurush Dalal-Socotra Island:A Heaven for Ancient Indian Seafarers
  9. ↑ "Socotra islands scenery in Yemen". en.youth.cn. China Youth International. 25 April 2008.
  10. ↑ "Paradise Has an Address: Socotra - Geography". socotra.cz. Socotra Z.S. Society.
  11. ↑ Abrams, Avi (4 September 2008). "The Most Alien-Looking Place on Earth". Dark Roasted Blend.
  12. ↑ "Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Ancient South Arabia through History". www.cambridgescholars.com. pp. 5–6.
  13. ↑ Sanjeev Sanyal Land of the Seven Rivers: A Brief History of India’s Geography. Penguin Books (2013), p. 112
  14. ↑ King, J.S. (July 1890). "The Aborigines of Sokotra: An Ethnological, Religious, and Philological Review". The Indian Antiquary: 189–215.
  15. ↑ Great Britain. Naval Intelligence Division (2005). "Appendix: Socotra". Western Arabia and the Red Sea. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 611. ISBN 9781136209956.
  16. ↑ A Historical Genealogy of Socotra as an Object of Mythical Speculation, Scientific Research & Development Experiment
  17. ↑ Huntingford, George Wynn Brereton (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Hakluyt Society. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-904180-05-3.
  18. ↑ "Socotra Archipelago – a lifeboat in the sea of changes: advancement in Socotran insect biodiversity survey" (PDF). Acta Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae. 52 (supplementum 2): 1–26.
  19. ↑ FACTBOX-Socotra, jewel of biodiversity in Arabian Sea. Reuters, 2008-04-23
  20. ↑ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1 – Native plants and animals – overview – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". www.teara.govt.nz.
  21. ↑ Burdick, Alan (25 March 2007). "The Wonder Land of Socotra". T Magazine. New York: New York Times.
  22. ↑ Miller, A.G.; Morris, M. (2004). Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
  23. ↑ .Černý, Viktor; Pereira, Luísa; Kujanová, Martina; Vašíková, Alžběta; Hájek, Martin; Morris, Miranda; Mulligan, Connie J. (April 2009). "Out of Arabia—The settlement of Island Soqotra as revealed by mitochondrial and Y chromosome genetic diversity". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 138 (4): 439–47. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20960. PMID 19012329.
  24. ↑ Y-STR Haplogroup Diversity in the Jat Population Reveals Several Different Ancient Origins
  25. ↑ "Yemen's Socotra, isolated island at strategic crossroads". The Economic Times. 7 June 2021.
  26. ↑ Amirkhanov, K.A.; Zhukov, V.A.; Naumkin, V.V.; Sedov, A.V. (2009). Эпоха олдована открыта на острове Сокотра. Pripoda (in Russian) (7).
  27. ↑ Zhukov, Valery A. (2014) The Results of Research of the Stone Age Sites in the Island of Socotra (Yemen) in 2008-2012. - Moscow: Triada Ltd. 2014, pps 114, ill. 134 (in Russian)ISBN 978-5-89282-591-7
  28. ↑ Seland, Eivind (2014). "Archaeology of Trade in the Western Indian Ocean, 300 BC–AD 700". Journal of Archaeological Research. 22: 367–402.
  29. ↑ Grant, Grainne (2005). "Socotra: Hub of the Frankincense Trade". The UC Davis Undergraduate Research Journal. 8: 119–138.
  30. ↑ Naumkin, Vitaly (1989). "Fieldwork in Socotra". Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies. 16: 133–142.
  31. ↑ Agatharchides of Cnidus, On the Erythraean Sea, translated and edited by Stanley M. Burstein (London, Hakluyt Society, 1989), p. 169.
  32. ↑ Schoff, Wilfred Harvey, ed. (1912), The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., ISBN 978-81-215-0699-1.
  33. ↑ Schoff, Wilfred Harvey, ed. (1912), The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., ISBN 978-81-215-0699-1.
  34. ↑ The Peoples of the West
  35. ↑ Jansen van Rensburg, Julian (2018). "Rock Art of Soqotra, Yemen: A Forgotten Heritage Revisited". The Artist and Journal of Home Culture. 7: 99.
  36. ↑ Cohen, Getzel (2006), The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-24148-0, JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt1pnd22. p.326
  37. ↑ Martin, E. G. (1974). "Mahdism and holy wars in Ethiopia before 1600". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 4: 114. JSTOR 41223140.
  38. ↑ Missick, Stephen Andrew (12 April 2016). "Socotra: The Mysterious Island of the Assyrian Church of the East". Church of Beth Kokheh Journal.
  39. ↑ Republic of Yemen, Socotra Archipelago, Proposal for inclusion in the World Heritage List - UNESCO, January 2006.
  40. ↑ Naumkin, Vitaly (1989). "Fieldwork in Socotra". Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies. 16: 133–142.
  41. ↑ Smith, Rex (1985). "Ibn al-Mujāwir on Dhofar and Socotra". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 15.
  42. ↑ Polo, Marco (1958). The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated and introduction by Ronald Latham. Penguin Books. pp. 296–297. ISBN 978-0-14-044057-7.
  43. ↑ Doe, Brian (1992). Socotra Island of Tranquility. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-0907151319.
  44. ↑ Diffie, Bailey Wallys; Winius, George Davison (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580. University of Minnesota Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8166-0782-2.
  45. ↑ Bowersock, Glen Warren; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (1999). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press. p. 753. ISBN 978-0674511736.
  46. ↑ Kurush Dalal-Socotra Island:A Heaven for Ancient Indian Seafarers
  47. ↑ Great Britain. Naval Intelligence Division (2005). "Appendix: Socotra". Western Arabia and the Red Sea. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 611. ISBN 9781136209956.
  48. ↑ Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. California. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-520-24430-6.
  49. ↑ "La grotte sanctuaire de Suqutra". Archéologia (in French) (396). January 2003.
  50. ↑ Bukharin, Mikhail D.; De Geest, Peter; Dridi, Hédi; Gorea, Maria; Jansen Van Rensburg, Julian; Robin, Christian Julien; Shelat, Bharati; Sims-Williams, Nicholas; Strauch, Ingo (2012). Strauch, Ingo (ed.). Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq. Bremen: Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag. p. 592. ISBN 978-3-934106-91-8.
  51. ↑ Martin, E. G. (1974). "Mahdism and holy wars in Ethiopia before 1600". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 4: 114. JSTOR 41223140.
  52. ↑ Polo, Marco (1958). The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated and introduction by Ronald Latham. Penguin Books. pp. 296–297. ISBN 978-0-14-044057-7.
  53. ↑ Natural History by Pliny Book VI/Chapter 32
  54. ↑ atural History by Pliny Book VI/Chapter 36
  55. ↑ Kurush Dalal-Socotra Island:A Heaven for Ancient Indian Seafarers
  56. ↑ https://www.bollyycorn.com/2020/09/blog-post_83.html
  57. ↑ www.bhaskar.com
  58. ↑ www.bhaskar.com
  59. ↑ https://anjas.org/rajasthani-dictionary/sikotarii-meaning
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